Positivism Theory Essay Example for Free

Positivism Theory Essay Positivism, (also referred to as ‘empiricism’) is often used to indicate that this approach to understanding criminality is scientific. The term positivism (or in its more sophisticated form Logical Positivism) is often used to refer to an approach that asserts it utilizes science or the scientific method (their version of science) to understand the causes of criminality and thus the solutions to solving it. Positivism is an epistemological position or a theory of knowledge which assets that science is based upon theories that have been induced from and only from empirical evidence or the evidence of the senses (hence the term ‘empirical’ or that which can be experienced by the senses). Positivists reject any evidence that cannot be objectively experienced or observed such as that derived from tradition, faith, magic, religion, philosophy or any other form of knowledge or belief that does not have an empirical basis. Thus they want to explain criminal behaviour by reference to causes that can be observed or measured. Causes have to be material and observable – biological positivists look at biological observables such as anatomical abnormalities, identifiable genetic or gene patterns, bodily movements etc. Psychological positivists will also look at biological observables but will add behavioural factors, child rearing practices and brain abnormalities that cause identifiable behaviour outcomes. Many modern scientists have virtually discredited positivism in favour of what we call the hypothetico-deductionist approach or a falsficationist approach. This approach begins with theoretical conjectures (or hypotheses) and then seeks to prove or disprove them by means of empirical evidence. However, whatever the differences in method both positivism and hypothetico-deductionism seek empirical evidence for their theoretical positions. Implicit in these approaches is the idea that the scientist is an objective disinterested observer of natural events with no preconceptions about them. In the case of physics these natural events or laws are said to be found in nature itself as, for example, in the study of such phenomena as the movement of the planets around the Sun, the effect of gravity on the tides and the phenomenon of the seasons created by the movement of the Earth around the Sun. In these cases the object of study is seen as governed by universal natural laws which the scientist has to discover. When this approach is applied in the human or social sciences we have to understand our object of study (i. e. human beings or societies) as also governed or regulated by rules that the scientist has to discover. Thus Biological Criminologists will use data from such sources as twin studies, family studies, genetic patterns, biochemical aspects and so on anything that can be studied by means of objective’, methods and which may throw up some biological explanation of that behaviour or a principle or a law that explains that behaviour. It follows that in positivist criminality, criminals are identified as certain kinds Of human beings who are governed by events or natural phenomena that have been set in place by something external to them and, in a sense, beyond their control. Thus criminals do not make decisions about their criminal behaviour they are, as it were, caused to behave in this way by factors that operate in a sense, behind their backs. Thus, so-called abstract views of human nature such as that they are rational and use reason in making choices about their actions have to be discarded as a cause of behaviour in favour of non-rational causes such as determination by such things as biological inheritance or forms of social conditioning or, in many cases, a combination of both (as in Eysenck). Positivists aim is to identify those with criminal tendencies or those already classified as criminals and use them as their data base. Their goal is to ascertain what has caused their criminality and then to look for ways of correcting such criminality or, even better, to ascertain those with tendencies for criminality (before hopefully they commit a crime) and to put some preventative measures in place. Biological positivists generally look for biological causes generally in genetic inheritance. A well know example is that of Klinenfelters Syndrome where a study of known criminals identified was said to be an extra y chromosome.

Heteromultimeric Channels Formed by Potassium Channel

Heteromultimeric Channels Formed by Potassium Channel Heteromultimeric channels formed by rat brain potassium-channel proteins SUMMARY Coexpression of RCK specific mRNAs in several regions of the brain suggested the presence of heteromultimeric potassium channels. These differ in properties compared to several copies of identical subunits in homomultimeric potassium channels, hence provides diversity. The aim of this study was to understand the components and compositions of the heteromultimeric potassium channels. RCK proteins are vital in the formation of the voltage-gated potassium channels. Normally species containing RCK proteins have homomultimeric potassium channels. In this experiment rats RCK variants: RCK1 and RCK4 were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and HeLa cells and tested their sensitivity against a K+ channel blocker (TEA). Normally K+ channels in HeLa cells do not rectify outward currents. However transfecting with plasmids consisting either cDNA RCK1 or cDNA RCK4, both resulted in outward rectifying K+ current. According to the method by Chen and Okayama, they were cultured by a standard protocol. Same pulse and cells were tested using the whole-cell patch configuration to measure the current. RCK1 and RCK4 channels both mediated a transient K+ outward current. In the presence of TEA, RCK4 is completely insensitive with 50% recovery time of 7.3(+/-3.4)s. Whereas RCK1 channels showed high sensitivity with complete blockage of current. However when cotransfection of cDNA RCK1,4 into HeLA cells resulted in a depolarising voltage step to 0mV, with outward currents consisting of an initial transient current followed by a non-inactivating component. In addition to TEA, similar expression as RCK1 channels with sensitivity and almost half blockage of current at 10mM, with 50% recovery time of 2.1(+/-0.5)s . F urther, increase in TEA to 100mM lead to complete blockage of the currents. Therefore due to different expression from homomultimeric RCK4 channels, these suggested that the cotransfection either mediated homomultimeric RCK1 channels or heteromultimeric channels being indistinguishable from RCK1 channels. Further examining of differing properties in voltage-dependent gating and conductance of the channels mediating the transient currents was done by injecting RCKs into Xenopus oocyte with cRNAs. Cell-attached marco patches configuration was used, allowing more voltage control with the presence of 10mM TEA solution. The oocyte was injected with cRNA RCKs and results of peak amplitudes of the transient currents against the voltage obtained were graphed, enabling the analysis of the saturation and inactivation behaviour. Paired conditioning and test pulses both were made to avoid test-pulse involved inactivation. Oocytes with RCK4 specific cRNA resulted in transient current peak showing no saturation until 40mV and began to inactivate during the test pulse, with 16.5(+-2.5)s at 50% recovery. Whereas coinjected RCK1,4 cRNA showed steep and shifted about 15mV towards more positive potential (~20mV) inactivation curve, with 5.7(+/-1.8)s at 50% recovery. This implied little inactivation duri ng the test pulse with faster recovery compared to RCK4 specific. Examining the gating of K+ channels resulted in linear and superlinear shape for coinjected and RCK4 specific oocytes channel opening respectively. Therefore the saturation and response of open gated channel from both coinjected HeLa and transfected oocyte cells support the characteristic of the opening of different channels and not from different activation kinetics. RCK 1,4 combinations showed intermediate sensitivity and faster recovery from inactivation to DTX and TEA, compared to homomultimeric RCK1 and RCK4 subunits. Results showed that RCK 1,4 inactivation were similar to RCK4 and single channel conductance being similar to RCK1. Overall, these results strongly support the suggestion of coexpression of RCK1 and RCK4 subunits which assemble to make a heteromultimeric RCK 1,4 channels with differing properties from homomultimeric channels.

In The Gate to Womens Country Essay -- Gender Equality Feminism Essays

In The Gate to Womens Country Evolutionary gender determinism proves that men and women are different, not only in a physical way, but in a psychological way as well. As far as history can determine, men were always the hunters who were dominant and competitive. On the other hand, women were known as the gathers, who were cooperative and capable of doing several things at a time. Since men and women are different in their make up. It is a struggle for the two genders to live together and maintain equality and harmony without one gender dominating over the other. In The Gate to Womens Country, Sheri Tepper brings forth a solution that allows the two genders to coincide with each other. She gives a somewhat feminist view in her novel, which takes place some three hundred years into the future. She paints a picture stating that total control and dominance by men would wipe out the world. In order for all mankind to survive, the women and a few select men were forced to come together and make decisions that would cha nge things forever. This novel is filled with situations where each gender takes advantage of the opposite and uses them to profit their own society; however, each gender not only took advantage of the opposite gender, but often their own gender as well. This novel is based around two societies, one of which is governed by women and the other consists of male warriors. Womens Country is a community where women live in a city bordered by block walls. They live in this city with their children and servitors. Servitors are men who decided to live in the Womens Country instead of living in the garrisons with the other men. The women handled everything in these cities and made up the entire city council. This country t... ...n had to give up children that did not even belong to their men. The men were also guilty of using each other for personal gain. The men in the garrisons used the servitors to show off and promote their manliness. In turn, the servitors used the garrisons in the worst way. Not only did the warriors protect them but gave the servitors a chance at spreading their genes. The ultimate goal of these men. This novel revolves around the purpose of people using one another to get what they want. The citizens of Womens Country took advantage of the garrisons and the number of returning men proves their success. Like in most cases, people need others to succeed. John Donne stated that no man is an island and this applies to the Gate to Womens Country. The success of Womens Country is a result of taking advantage of their citizens and of the garrisons, to make a comeback.

Personal Essay - I Welcome the Challenge -- Personal Narrative, essay

I have learned a great many things from playing soccer. It has changed my entire outlook on and attitude toward life. Before my freshman year at Cool high school, I was shy, had low self-esteem and turned away from seemingly impossible challenges. Soccer has altered all of these qualities. On the first day of freshman practice, the team warmed up with a game of soccer. The players were split up and the game began. However, during the game, I noticed that I didn't' t run as hard as I could, nor did I try to evade my defender and get open. The fact of the matter is that I really did not want to receive the ball. I didn't' t want to be the one at fault if the play didn't' t succeed. I did not want the responsibility of helping the team because I was too afraid of making a mistake. That aspect...

Owning a Pet Essay -- Dog Cat Pets Essays Papers Personal Narrative

Owning a Pet Having a pet is a wonderful idea. Pets bring companionship, personality, and gut wrenching humor to households across the world. Having previously owned both a cat and a dog, and currently being without a pet, I began to think about getting a new furry friend. Born a dog lover, and bred into a cat lover, I had the difficult decision of choosing one of the two. When I was twenty-two years old, I answered an advertisement in the paper for free Labrador puppies. Driving up to the house, I saw all the little critters running around and having a ball of a time. I got into the pen with the pups, and finally decided on the shy runt who spent the majority of his time hiding under a board. I loved his personality and instantly knew he was the dog for me. I named him Charlie, and from that point on our master/dog relationship began. At the time I lived in a small two bedroom house with a fenced yard near Wanamaker road. Once Charlie was a full grown dog, he was the hit of the block. Charlie hardly ever barked, and was always just as happy to see the large groups of children exiting the school bus, as he was for me to arrive at home after work. Charlie had a bag full of tricks. My favorite was the Bob Dole, in which Charlie would sit and shake with his right paw, then I would give him the "Bob Dole" command, and he would immediately shake with his left paw. It was a riot, and netted Charlie about thirty pounds of treats in his lifetime. Vegas, on the other hand, was a full grown Persian cat that a friend was trying to find an adopted home for before she moved out of state. I had been around Vegas enough times to have a good idea of his personality, and I decided to help my friend out and give Vegas a try. Unlike C... ..., and none of it was as impressive or as interesting as the furry cat on the couch, not to mention the personal escort to and from the car to the door from the sweet, polite, black lab outside. But I can't really blame my guests, for Charlie and Vegas' cute faces and gestures worked their magic on me as well. And more times than naught, they got what they wanted in life. After losing Charlie in a car accident, and Vegas being returned to his rightful owner, I decided to get a new cat. A new cat would be more affordable, and fit in with my apartment house lifestyle. The ability to maintain a cats responsibilities while attending school, and spending weekends at work, is far less of a job than it would be for a new dog. The decision has proved worthwhile. Flea is doing well adapting to her new surroundings, and doing her best to avoid the lava life throws her way.

Henrik Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler Essay

Henrik Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler is a story of great tragedy, with a web of controversies and a tangle of secrets. In such a beautiful irony, it portrayed that the small town wherein the heroine resides with her husband, is inflicted with gruesome gossip and twisted tales of conflicted interests. Hedda Gabler, a born aristocrat who marries to a class beneath her, has to do with a lifestyle far inferior than what she is used to. The writer used a conversational tone to portray Hedda’s manipulative nature as she controls those that surrounds her. The story revolves around this young wife, as she plays with people’s feelings and affairs, and meddle with things so much so that they work out to her advantage. In this tragedy, it pays to ask the question: what provoked Hedda to marry Tesman? II – Marriage of Different Lifestyles I am interested with Ibsen’s idea of Hedda Gabler being an aristocrat who had to get used to a different lifestyle. There were many analysis offered for the play Hedda Gabler, yet only a handful of them displayed this very obvious fact. The fact that Hedda is manipulative and is using her husband, Jà ¼rgen Tesman, is evident from the first scene of the play, when Tesman commented how fat Hedda is getting, when in fact his wife is pregnant and he has no idea. Even Tesman’s aunt, Aunt Julle, picked up upon this very noticeable change in Hedda, yet Hedda dismissed her with curt replies. SparkNotes (2009) even commented the tyranny of Hedda over Tesman’s household, wherein Berte, the maid, is scared of not being able to please her, and Aunt Julle is tormented by her. Tesman lived to do his wife’s every bidding. In fact, Tesman did everything he can to make sure that they afford the lavish house they are living in, just because Hedda happened to mention that she would want to live in that particular house. When further analysis from SparkNotes (2009) revealed that Hedda only said she wanted that house because she cannot think of anything else to say. To Hedda the house is a joke, a sign of Tesman’s unwavering devotion and faithfulness, to Tesman, the house is a fulfillment of his wife’s wish. Along the play, Tesman followed his wife’s every bidding. There was in instance wherein Hedda was rude to Aunt Julle and Tesman reprimanded her afterwards. Still, basically Tesman’s role in the play was to follow Hedda’s wishes. When Hedda burned the novel of Ejlert Là ¶vborg, Tesman was delighted. He actually thought that Hedda did it because she wanted to help him advance in his academic profession, when in fact Hedda burned the novel because she didn’t want to be reminded of the romance between Ejlert and her. This is interesting to notice, seeing as in other cultures, it is actually discouraged that people from different social standings to marry. With Hedda and Tesman, it is plain that she had to adjust to a different lifestyle, and because of this, she was bored, and living with Tesman does not excite her, as she confides to Judge Brack. This brings me back to my original thesis: what provoked Hedda to marry Tasman, seeing that he is a man of lower class, and he cannot afford her lavish lifestyle? We could only grope Ibsen’s wisdom. Perhaps it is because through Tasman, Hedda can forget about her past relationship with Ejlert, or perhaps, through Tasman, Hedda can still indulge herself a playmate whom she can take advantage of. We can never be certain, until Ibsen partakes the real reason for the two’s matrimony. III – Secrets Revealed Throughout the play, there were numerous secrets disclosed. SparkNotes (2009) mentions the secrets, such as Hedda taking advantage of all the men in the play, Hedda’s affair with Ejlert, which scarred the latter for life, the relationship between Mrs. Elvsted and Ejlert, among many others.   The author cleverly reveals each secret little by little, dragging the audience to the edge of their feet before giving the final picture. Throughout the play, the audience is captivated by how many more secrets will be revealed, and how will Hedda manipulate people to tell her what she wants to hear. I love the irony discussed with the last scene, wherein Aunt Julle returned to the household that is now filled with mourning, what with Aunt Rina’s passing and the horrible incident with Ejlert. Aunt Julle was very welcoming and still hints at Hedda for children, and was oblivious to the fact that so many changes happened within the home, and to pretend that nothing happened is otherwise insane. Yet the author was able to get away with such a tricky symbolism, as the audience is sure to applaud the wit and charisma Aunt Julle brings into the last scene. Also worth mentioning is the way Tasman was horrorstruck when he found out that his wife had burned Ejlert’s novel. However when he thought she was doing it out of love so that he will be able to secure the teaching post he so much wanted, he would have gladly embraced Hedda. How could someone be blinded so much by a manipulative woman? I’ve known that some people say that love is blind, but in Tesman’s case, the clichà © is very much overrated, seeing as she was fooling him in his own home. How can a man not see that his wife is pregnant, and yet would opt to commend on her new curves and new body? Does he not see the baby that is growing in Hedda’s belly? With this, perhaps the pregnancy is the reason why Hedda is manipulative and very sarcastic. Women who are pregnant are prone to mood swings and irrational thinking, yet what would contribute to Hedda’s dark nature? Is she really being sarcastic and arrogant because of her proud upbringing, or is she acting this way because she is pregnant and she has no feelings for the child in her womb and with the baby’s father? Overall the play is very satisfactory. Even in the ending wherein Hedda committed suicide, the audience could rest their breaths, knowing that Tasman is in the arms of a capable woman, Mrs. Elvsted. SparkNotes (2009) describes Mrs. Elvsted as a competent woman who bounces off from men to men, according to her needs. She met Mr. Elvsted by working for him, and afterwards they were married. With Ejlert, the Elvsteds hired him to be a tutor for their children, and Mrs. Elvsted turned out to be Ejlert’s assistant in his research and writing. After Hedda burned the novel, Mrs. Elvsted mentioned that she knew some parts of Ejlert’s manuscript because she helped him research for it. She and Tasman immediately tried to reconstruct the manuscript that Ejlert wrote. Now that Hedda is out of the picture, and the original author of the manuscript is also gone, then Mrs. Elvsted is free to make her move in regards to Tasman, and the two of them can prove to the audience that in their dreary old town, it is still possible for love to exist.

Meat packing industry Essay

Introduction America’s fast food industry was founded by self made man who took risk, worked hard, some not even going to collage. Today the industry relies on a low-paid and unskilled workforce, where a handful are able to rise up the corporate ladder, while the vast majority lack fulltime employment, receive no benefits, and end up quitting after a few months. The fast food industry prospered over the last 30 years because minimum wage was lowered, marking was directed at children, federal agencies meant to protect workers and consumers ended up working for the companies, and corporations worked with congress to oppose laws that didn’t help them. The â€Å"American world view† is embodied in fast food because it takes advantage of those who don’t know any better. Chapter 1 The element of car based restaurants like the ones started in Southern California encouraged the spread of fast food because they had good food, became successful, and were very popular among young people. Chapter 2 Disney and Kroc were similar because they both used science to sell their products, made up famous mascots to sell products and both focused selling to kids. They were different because Disney founded his company, and Kroc bought his, they sold different products, and Kroc wasn’t involved in politics, while Disney was. Their companies cooperated when McDonald’s agreed to sell Disney toys and Disney agreed to allow McDonald’s in Disneyland. The fast food industry started with billboard ads to attract kids and evolved to adverting every where, from TV, to the internet, to school hallways. They also make the restaurants themselves fun for kids with play places and selling toys so they want to go more, and even as adults bring their own kids. Personally, I don’t think it is ethical to advertise in schools because it fast food is unhealthy and kids should be learning that, not that the burgers at McDonald’s get and A in taste. Chapter 3 Most employees of fast food restaurants ate teenagers because most are willing to work long hours with little pay. Fast food corporations relentlessly stop their workers from unionizing by doing things like integrating workers with information about a possible union with lie detectors, or closing locations with unions and opening new locations near by. Working conditions at fast food restaurants are unsafe. Typical dangers the employees face ate slips, fall, cuts, burns, and robberies. Problems are dealt with by increasing security with cameras or more parking lot lights. If I worked at a fast food restaurant and I injured my self, I might not tell my manager because I could loose my job because they could blame me for the injury. Chapter 4 The advantages of starting your own business is if it is successful, you could get a lot of money, not to mention you are your own boss so no one besides the government tells you how to run your business. The disadvantages are the business could be unsuccessful and you could loose a lot of money. The advantages of working for someone else are you do not have to make too many tough decisions. The disadvantages are you will not make as much money as your boss, and you may not like your boss for whatever reason. Some legal issues that fast food franchises have been involved in are the Coble’s Bill which makes franchises obey the principles other companies follow. The Subway fast food franchise was involved in the SBA which helps restaurants by giving them government funds. Subway got involved and made it so they would get extra money. Chapter 5 Family farms are disappearing because industry farms take all the business and close family farms because they have no one to sell to. there are only a few small potato farms left because industries take up all the land and business. The take-over of agricultural farms effects communities because local farms go out of business and communities become dependent on the corporate farm. Chapter 6 Development and fast food farms take land and effects cattle pastures because there is less land for the cattle to graze. Since most cowboys and ranchers have gone out of business, they have become irreverent in today’s culture. The government set up the Sherman Antitrust Act and a congressional investigation in the meet packing industry to help ranchers. Later, the Reagan administration allowed the top four meat packing firms to merge and they took over the cattle markets. Corporate domination affected family farms by forcing them to work for them or go out of business. Self-reliance is still a viable goal for Americans, but has become very difficult because of big corporations. The fast food industry makes chicken farmers work for them or they would get no business. In farm culture, the land is a tangible connection to the past, meant to be handed down and not sold. To native Americans, the land meant life and prosperity. In traditional Irish culture, the land is a link to past generations and to loose the land meant to fail your relatives. Their concept of land is similar to the American concept. Chapter 7 The demands of the fast food industry changed towns by making is so almost everyone ends up eating fast food because the industries are aloud to put their restaurants wherever they want and advertise as much as they want until the town’s economy runs on the fast food restaurants. Chapter 8 Meatpacking is dangerous because of the machines and rarely cleaned cutting tools. Since a meatpacking manager’s bonus is based in part on injury rate, many injuries go unreported and the worker is either given an easer job to takes time off to recover. Chapter 9 The meat packing and meat processing industry has been a spreader of disease because the animals are not screened well enough or sick workers spreading disease on the animals. After reading about the pathogens in hamburger meat, I am concerned about food poisoning in fast food. E. coli is not common in restaurant food, but is likely to be in hamburger meat. Chapter 10 Many Americans are obese because of lack of information and improper food laws. Fast food probably plays a big part in obesity because it provides unhealthy food to almost every where. Americans are probably more obese than other countries because fast food started here. Fast food companies increase the size of their meals to effect the calorie count look better for the per serving part. This effects American health because it is misguiding and you eat more than you thought you were going to. People in other countries do not want fast food because they have seen its effect on America. Epilogue The free market Schosser talks about leaves workers unprotected with little interference from the government. In the quote, Schosser is referring to the free market. I agree to what Schlosser says on 216. I believe the government needs to work harder to protect both the workers and consumers of fast food. At the end of the Epilogue, the author remedies his criticisms with the fact that it is a persons choice to eat want. Afterword Mad Cow disease is a disease that slowly destroys the brain and can be spread through hamburger meat. It can be controlled by feeding cows grass instead of corn and hormones, and inspecting the meat better. Cattle get infected by it because they stand in the dung of an effected cattle. It is a very serous threat to humans.