The American Food

American cuisine is an American food style that traces its roots back to the colonial times when Native Americans used different styles to cook a variety of foods with different ingredients. As colonization took place, it saw the introduction of new types of food that were unknown prior to this epoch. As the immigration of people from different parts of the world in the 19th and 20th centuries intensified, the same happened to the diversity in cooking styles.This essay is going to limit its focus to American food and will give an analysis of what American food entails. The Native American delicacy was made of different types of food and they included plant foods which can be categorized as root vegetables like arrowhead, bitterroot, prairie, sweet potato and white potatoes. The other category is green vegetables like salmon berry shoots, fiddlehead fern, wood sorrel, wild nasturtium and coltsfoot. Their fruits according to Sack (2001) included; strawberries, pitaya, hawthome fruits a nd elderberries and American persimmons.The natives also used seeds as food for example; pine nuts, dropseed, spurge, tumbleweed, sunflower and pigweed. Apart from plant food, they also used animal foods especially game meat of animals such as deer, bighorn sheep, bear, bison, goat and elk. Small game meat came from animals like raccoon, rabbit, wood rat, ground hog, honey badger and porcupine and is something that is still common to the natives. They also hunted birds such as pigeon, osprey and turkey besides keeping birds such as geese, swan and ducks (American Native Food.2009). When colonialists arrived in the Americas, they found that the food that was consumed there was different from what they were used to and thus they had to introduce what they were used to back in England. They also kept animals for fur and meat and with time they had a cuisine similar to that of their motherland. Apart from introducing their own foods, they also adopted some of the natives’ food an d would use their own cooking styles unlike those of the locals (American Native Food.2009). Colonial foods varied across regions and they greatly transformed the diet of the locals for example hunting game meat was no longer practiced and they tried to discourage it. Today just like it was the case in the past, people living near the sea consumes sea foods such as crustaceans, lobsters and various kinds of fish. Today, there happens to be a change of diet as the American diet has been changed by the fast food industries.Schlosser (2001), many Americans have forgotten about their indigenous foods and have turned to fast foods something that is detrimental to their health. Many of them are flocking in fast food hotels and restaurants that are selling foods such as cheese, hamburger, pizza and fries. These foods have been cited as the main cause of obesity in America and have caused many to be overweight. Today, if one goes to a hotel to look for food; one finds that the menu is limit ed in the kinds of foods that are sold unlike in the past where traditional foods made the menu.Though this food has led to the change of diet, it has created many job opportunities as many are employed in those hotels that are allover the world and has led the Americanization of food due to globalization something that threatens the survival of food cultures of those nations (Schlosser, 2001). In short, it could be said that American foods are diverse and depends on the regions they are consumed in. In the past, the Native Americans before colonialists had a wide range of foods that was fit health-wise unlike the lately introduced fast foods.These foods were prepared and cooked in various ways but colonialist introduced theirs when they came as they consumed different kind of food from what was consumed locally and some of them are still in use to date. References: American Native Food. 2009. American Native Food. Accessed from http://www. tahtonka. com/food. html Schlosser, E, 200 1. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. Houghton Mifflin Company. Sack, Daniel. 2001. Whitebread Protestants: food and religion in American culture. Palgrave Macmillan.

Lady Gaga: Gender in “Love Game”

Justine Burke Professor Adigweme Rhetoric 10:03:145 9/24/10 Lady Gaga: Gender in â€Å"Love Game† Many artists today are always trying to be somebody they are not. Their costumes are getting bigger and crazier than ever. One artist that exceptionally stands out in the crowd of performing artists is Lady Gaga. Every costume she wears, every move she makes becomes more epic every time she is seen. Most of the costumes she wears hide her identity and it is unknown who she is really trying to be.In â€Å"Love Game,† Lady Gaga’s gender is being questioned by the lyrics and image of the frame, by the subjectiveness in the video, by tweaking others’ work into hers, how the clothing and lighting give symbols to her gender, and who she is ultimately trying to be. Gender is a huge question in the text of this song. According to the lyrics and image of this frame, Lady Gaga is playing her love game with her candidates. They are in a dirty subway station with the ligh ts of two trains behind them illuminating the frame.Gaga is clearly the center of attention where everyone wants to win her over. She wants to know if the â€Å"subject† who could be male or female, will actually like her for her, or if the subject just wants the fame. When it is said â€Å"Let’s have some fun, this beat is sick,† the energized dancing and the careless crotch grabbing in the choreography shows that Lady Gaga and her subjects are simply having fun dancing to the beat.With the words â€Å"I wanna take a ride on your disco stick,† would normatively be seen as a woman’s line, but if Lady Gaga is playing the gender game in her video, like she is in the middle of the video by kissing both a male and a female, then she could ultimately be a male speaking that line to another male. Gaga indicates her subject to be a male with the line â€Å"guess he wants to play. † She doesn’t want to get too emotionally close with this man because she’s still not sure if he’s going for her love or with her game of touching and kissing and sex for the fame. No matter what Gaga’s subjects are searching for, whether it is love or fame, they are dancing very subjective towards her. They all want to win her over as she is letting them dance on and around her anyway they want. The men are suggestive towards her by grinding on her, giving her suggestive looks, and by chasing her. Lady Gaga shows this by wearing very little clothing, twirling her hair around, and letting the men dance and grind on her. A lot of the main choreography symbolizes Michael Jackson’s work. * Lady Gaga seems to symbolize others’ work a lot.Such as Grace Jones’ work. Grace Jones is a model, actress, and a singer/performing artist. When comparing the outfits she used to wear to the outfits Lady Gaga wears today, she clearly seems to be copying Grace Jones. Jones said, â€Å"I’ve seen some things sheâ⠂¬â„¢s worn that I’ve worn, and that does kind of piss me off. † (Hattenstone). Lady Gaga also follows in the footsteps and appears to be copying actresses such as: Brigette Helm, Beyonce, and Madonna by wearing an outfit that symbolizes the Maschinenmensch in her video â€Å"Telephone. * Even though Gaga is always being accused of copying others’ work we have to respect her for what she does as music lovers. Lady Gaga is not copying older artists, she is being unique, tweaking great ideas that have not been touched in years, putting her swag on them, and making old idea’s into new and improved ideas. Lady Gaga says, â€Å"I eat, sleep, breathe, and bleed every inch of my work† (Vicks). This is clearly what Gaga does and proves that she loves every aspect of what she does and that is the kind of dedication one must have in order to be a performing artist.She clearly could not be working any harder at this point in her life as she is continuously ma king number one hits such as: â€Å"Alejandro,† â€Å"Love Game,† â€Å"Bad Romance,† â€Å"Paparazzi,† â€Å"Poker Face,† and â€Å"Telephone. † * One aspect in her hit â€Å"Love Game,† in this frame Lady Gaga is wearing a different color top than everyone around her and is in the center of the formation. This indicates from the text that it is her game and everyone else wants to win her over hoping to play the game with her. All of her performers are wearing dark clothes though.This indicates dirtiness and impurity. Another costume effect is that one of Gaga’s dancers and herself are wearing a small symbol of an SS Soldier uniform within their outfits. Often in video’s, performers act to be someone they are not. They personally do not have any connections with the Nazi’s, but they are indicating and symbolizing that they are trying to be someone they are not. For instance, Lady Gaga makes us question her gender in this video. Not knowing this information shows that her gender s unknown. * If something is unknown it is put in the dark, like a mystery. The low lighting in the frame symbolizes the mystery of Lady Gaga’s gender and who she is trying to be in this video. The darkness also symbolizes the dirty and impure subway. Now that it is the end of the video and she has been through the subway she is impure and the darkness symbolizes this. These men are druggie type of men whom are stereotypically looking for specific things, like women and drugs, all for their pleasure.There are many different types of subjects in the world and this is where Gaga chooses to look for her subject. The light that is shining through is simply used to illuminate the dancers. Or, it also symbolizes more trains coming for the game to start all over again. * Subways are dark places at night and there can be isolated groups of people in them. Lady Gaga and her subjects are the only ones at the subway stat ion and there is no one else around, like their own little group. This is a perfect opportunity for Gaga to choose her sexuality and the person she wants all to herself.Since there are so many different types of subjects and groups of people found at a subway station, Gaga could ultimately choose to be just like one of those people she may see. She can be whoever she wants. She chooses to be a male with the dance move she is performing. * There are so many different kinds of people in the world, especially in one of the biggest cities in America, New York City. This is where many subway stations are located that people hear about and have never used that aren’t from NYC.There are any type of persons and groups there such as: male, female, straight, queer, bisexual, performer, dancer, gang member, business man, student, etc. There are many different things in life that can veer someone to become any person they want to be and to choose their identity by. The norm at a place li ke this is to be different, unlike in a smaller city. It is a perfect place for the film to be shot. Even if this video was not shot in New York City, it still represents a place like it and all the identities that are found there.This is where the ultimate question falls. Who is Lady Gaga trying to be and who is she supposed to be? * Lady Gaga’s gender in this frame at the end of the video has turned into an impure male symbol. This identity is becoming more of a norm in society today, that is, homosexuality. This is what she is representing. Gaga is trying to make what isn’t normal in society, what isn’t safe, what isn’t in people’s comfort zone, what is completely outside of the box, and wants to make it the norm. She wants to make it all okay things to be and she is the one doing it.With this said Lady Gaga is one of the main artists that definitely stands out in the crowd. This makes her be able to do whatever she wants and not care how much s he gets judged. There was uncertainty about her identity in â€Å"Love Game,† but now it is analyzed who she is. * * * * * * * * *Works Cited * Hattenstone, Simon â€Å"Grace Jones: ‘God I’m scary. I’m scaring myself’† The Guardian (2010) * Vicks, Meghan â€Å"The Icon and the Monster: Lady Gaga is a Trickster of American Pop Culture† Gaga Stigma: Critical Writings and Art About Lady Gaga (2010)

The Roll of Ethics In Public Administration Research Paper

The Roll of Ethics In Public Administration - Research Paper Example This paper declares that from the case of Enron to the case of Lehman Brothers, corporate ethics, namely the disregard for them, have been a pervasive theme of the past several years. However, in all of the discussion of insider trading or purposefully ignoring standards for the financial sector, little attention is paid toward the public sector and the means through which high ethical standards must necessarily be engaged. As such, this brief analysis will focus upon the public sector and the need for ethics that it necessarily engenders. Recent cases of poor ethics within the public sector have resulted in a great loss of efficiency and/or public trust; which thereby correlates to a decrease in the functions or usefulness of these public entities. As a result of all of these reasons, regaining public trust through demonstrating high ethical standards is a core requirement that all publicly administered organizations must engage. It is the hope of this author that the discussion tha t will be forthcoming will underscore this need and seek to provide solutions and proscriptive change for the way in which this might be handled. As the paper highlights that the history of public trust dates as far back as public institutions themselves. Sadly, for much of this history, public organizations have been seen as corrupt and inefficient; at least as compared to their private counterparts. Beyond merely an unfair level of characterization, the underlying rational for this has traditionally been the fact that publicly administered organizations have a seemingly endless supply of resources. Due to this characterization, individuals incorrectly attribute this to mean that public administered organizations are inherently unethical and become wasteful and unscrupulous with the resources that they are charged with. Regardless of the standards that might exists, this is still a pervasive view that is held by many stakeholders; and likely one that is not set to change anytime in the very near future.  

Effect of Color Vision on Foraging and predatoe detection skills in Research Paper

Effect of Color Vision on Foraging and predatoe detection skills in New World Monkey - Research Paper Example 657) and has been attributed to be influenced by chromatic signals which are usually produced by the leaves (Dominy and Lucas 363) and fruits (Regan et al. 229). Research has also revealed that trichromatics have the capability of identifying fruits from a background that is leafy and that though fruits have the ability to protect themselves especially during their ripening process, the trichromatics are also able to tell apart the ripe from unripe fruits. Majority of research has been conducted to investigate the foraging ability of trichromatics but less research has been done illustrating the effect of color vision on predator skills. This evidences a loop hole in research that this research proposal seeks to answer by investigating the effect of color vision not only as pertains to foraging but also on predator detection skills and especially among New World Monkey. Proposed research hypothesis There is a positive correlation between color visions among trichromatic species and t heir preference for predator detection and foraging. Methods used for collecting genetic and other types of data Genetic data will be collected using amplification and sequencing of the opsin X linked gene which is responsible for the trichomatic genotype hence the vision phenotype. This will include extracting DNA from the monkeys by using their hair strands, saliva or blood samples for evaluation. Sequence analysis and PCR will also be used so as to identify the four amino acids that are present in the heterozygous females that present with the trichromatic vision allele as evidence in other studies (Surridge and Mundy 2157). Behavioral method of collecting data will be employed where the behavior of monkeys will be observed so as to distinguish trichromatics from dichromatic behavior in feeding. This will be aimed at assessing if there is a positive link between the behavior of trichromatics in feeding on ripe fruits and in their predation, compared to dichromatic monkeys. Moreov er behavior of dichromatic and monochromatic monkeys that make them unable to distinguish the ripe from unripe fruits will also be assessed (Smith, et al. 3162). Morphological method of data collection will be used at evaluating the morphology of ripe fruits that makes them more predisposed to foraging by trichromatic compared to dichromatic. Consequently, the morphology of leaves will also be used to assess the role played in camouflaging the unripe fruits and the effect on color vision it has on trichromatics compared to dichromatic monkeys (Smith, et al. 3162). Methods of analyzing the data Data will be analyzed by use of software by the name SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences where raw data will be collected, cleaned and coded. After coding into dichromatic and trichomatic as the independent variables and foraging and predator detection as the dependent variables, data will be entered into the computer and analyzed. Results will be presented in the form of tables, cha rts and figures for easier interpretation and discussion. Justification Color vision discrimination is important for the survival of any animal especially in the wild. Not only do the animals benefit from the study, results generated pertaining to foraging will aid enhancing the growth of fruits to maturity. This is since it will ensure that the unripe fruits

What Is Meant By Market Failure And How Can Government Attempt To Essay

What Is Meant By Market Failure And How Can Government Attempt To Correct It - Essay Example In economics, a market failure takes place when â€Å"the production or use of goods and services by the market is not efficient†. In other words, market failure occurs when free market fail to provide optimum allotment of resources, either over-allocating, or under-allocating their resources, which results in economic inefficiency In other words, market failure occurs when free market fail to provide optimum allotment of resources, either over-allocating, or under-allocating their resources, which results in economic inefficiency (Francis, n.d). In such a case, there exists another possible outcome where the market participants’ gains would compensate their losses. Market failure is a serious issue as in consequence it disrupts social and economic region of a particular region or even the whole country. Thus, it is a challenge for governments to interfere and ensure that there is no risk of market failure. There are several ways in which governments can correct the sta te of markets: by public section production, regulations and antitrust legislation, taxation and subsidies (Francis, n.d). This paper discusses different kinds of market failure and the ways in which government can attempt to correct them. There are several general categories of market failure: market power, externalities, public goods, and equity. Market power is the ability of a company to influence the market price of a good or service, raising prices above competitive levels (Francis, n.d, ICT regulation toolkit, n.d). A company with market power can raise prices without losing a significant portion of its business to other companies. The rise in the prices above competitive levels may affect negatively the market as it results in diminished customer demand, efficiency loses, and harm on the public interest. Furthermore, companies with significant market power may abuse their power, using their leading position to reduce competition. Some common forms of anticompetitive conduct involve abuse of dominance, cross-subsidization, and misuse of information (Market Power, n.d). There are several ways in which governments can deal with abuse of significant market power. To start with, all national regulatory authorities (NRA) have to make an assessment of the state of completion in specific markets and consider whether such competitive behavior harms another companies and customers (European Regulators Group, 2007). In such a case, the dominant company may be required to stop its abusive behavior or make specific changes to its policy so that it would not be damaging to competition anymore (Remedies for Abuse of Dominance, n.d). This remedy requires the authorities to monitor the company continuously to guarantee that the behavioral change is maintained. Another possible solution is fining the company or its employers with direct responsibility for anticompetitive behavior. The firm can also be ordered to pay compensation to its customers and competitors who have been harmed by their policies. The European Regulators Group (2007) proposes functional separation in markets where non-discrimination procedures were ineffective in dealing with problems of abusive market power. Functional separation may involve breaking the company into two different firms with separate market shares, or separating competitive and monopoly products and services of the company. This solution may also include such elements as separation of operational support systems, brands, employees, and information management systems among new, individual business units. When deciding on the degree of the separation proposed, the NRA’s have to take into account the cost and benefits of this solution and base their decision on completed market reviews (The European Regulators Group, 2007). Cross-subsidization occurs when companies with market power charge a high price for their non-competitive products services and use different proceeds to subsidize low prices for compet itive goods. In such a case, governments can implement and enforce a price floor for the low-cost products in order to ensure that the revenue that is generated by the product

Alexander I - Reformer or Autocrat Research Paper

Alexander I - Reformer or Autocrat - Research Paper Example Nevertheless, quite a few of those rulers have proved to be so influential that people and history have remembered them since time immemorial. In fact, these chronicles of ancient civilizations have always reigned over the credentials of history. Likewise, these emperors and their ruling periods have left a noticeable and ineradicable imprint in the history of the universe. Amongst the few incomprehensible autocrats that the world has witnessed, Alexander I is one of those enigmatic tsars that has tyrannized the region of Russia for more than a span of twenty years. While looking at the historical background of Russia, it has come under observation that Russia has been a foremost power of Europe that has played a significant role for the peace settlements of the greater parts of it. In addition, history enlightens that for over several centuries; Russia indulged itself as a curb for the European countries in front of the emperors that in quest of having the power over them1. Despite the fact that Alexander I had been a prominent personality of the history, several historical episodes deal with him but only a few meticulous analyses on his personality and policies have come under presentation. The autobiographical epic of Alexander I elucidate the piece of information that he was born in the latter years of the sixteenth century and the last quarter of decade 1770s in one of the largest cities of Russia. Alexander I the Blessed was another name given to him by the people of Russia as he ruled over Russia as an emperor for nearly twenty-five years during his shot span of life. Alexander I was also the Russian King of Poland for approximately ten years. He also gained recognition by becoming the â€Å"first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania†2. Although Alexander I was the eldest son amongst his siblings, yet he became the successor to his father of the throne and came into power at a very young age. Alexander I became the czar of Russia when this state was in a turbulent and uncontrolled position due to the happening of Napoleonic Wars. According to the historians, the ruling period of Alexander has come under dissection in two periods primarily. The first period comes under remembrance mostly as progressive and the concluding years of the power deemed as orthodox or counterrevolutionary stage. The historical records reveal the fact that noninterventionist or liberal improvements and reforms were the highlighting facets during the earlier period of the sovereignty of Alexander I. Alexander I carried out the liberal reforms with an intention to transform Russian empire into a highly democratic and modernized society. Moreover, restructuring of the country and codify the legislation of Russia were amongst the numerous distinct reforms of Alexander I3. In addition to it, education and spread of knowledge was one of the fundamental aspects of the early reforms by Alexander I that came under key emphasis during his early reign in terlude. However, the latter period of his dominion states that he practiced much more arbitrary manner of conduct that even abolished or rolled back several preceding reforms consequently4. This is because he became quite conservative after defeating Napoleon who made an endeavor to surmount Russia. This defeat to Napoleon endorsed Alexander I as the most supreme and powerful ruler amongst all of the European emperors. Actually, the alliance of Russia with France deteriorated after this defeat to Napo

Dynamics of multinational companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dynamics of multinational companies - Essay Example However, it should be noted that the benefits that come about as a result of FDI can only be possible if all the three parties follow the right regulations, and the ethical ways of doing business is strictly adhered to. This paper sheds some light on the costs, and benefits of FDIs to the investors, the home country, and the host country. In addition, it will also review how the country, and the firms’ level of development, and growth play a role in determining the costs, and benefits accrued from the FDIs (Weigel, Wagal & Gregory 1997, 56). Benefits and costs for The host country One of the core benefits of global foreign direct investment is that it creates an opportunity for money to freely flow to any business around the world that shows any signs of potential growth in the future. This is in light of the fact that when investors choose to invest their money, the main logic behind this is that they expect some forms of return from the investment. Additionally, the home cou ntry’s capital account will benefit from the inward flow from the returns on the investment. There are no standard criteria on who deserves the investment, and who doesn’t. This ensures that all the businesses get equal competitive advantage, and no particular business is favored over the others. Subsequently, economists observed that the best money will be invested in the best business anywhere in the world despite the race or color or culture. This in turn means that the goods, and services will reach the market just in time as compared to an instance when unrestricted FDI wouldn’t have been available. Benefits and costs for home country The foreign direct investment has an advantage to the investors too. The investors get to receive global benefits. The fact that the investors can freely invest in different countries reduces the risks likely to be suffered from the investment. Diversification brings about reduction in the risks likely to be incurred, and an i ncrease in the returns that will be enjoyed from the investment (Stephan 2013, 43). Secondly, the other benefit to the home country that comes with FDIs is that the investors can learn new valued skills that may come in handy from the foreign markets. Thereupon, these skills are then transferred to the home country leader to even further growth, and development for the country’s economy. Moreover, the businesses also get to benefit in that when an investor chooses to invest in a particular business, it is often expected that the investor will ensure that the staff is competent enough to give the investment a return. Additionally, the investors will introduce new technology to the business to ensure that it has a competitive edge over its competitors.(Chung 1997, 40) The business will get to be enlightened on ways of doing business they would likely not have been aware of before the investors come into the picture (Jones & Wren 2007,54). As a result, there will be improved gen eral living standards of the employees of the business with all these new incorporation. To add to this, since there are no kinds of favoritism in choosing which business to invest in, it would be expected that the government will have less influence on the business, and that the government isn’t able to put up poor economic policies that will affect the business. The other advantage for the host country is that there is a general improvement on the standards of living for the people in the country.

Simulation Analysis Report Lab Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Simulation Analysis - Lab Report Example It is therefore true to say that the strategy adopted by the company was successful as it helped the company in achieving its operational and strategic goals. The companys strategy has also been effective in the achievement of the operational and strategic goals of the company. The effectiveness of the company strategy can be evaluated using activity ratios. Judging from the activity ratios, it is clearly evident that the company has been effective in its operations. For example, the inventory turnover of 0.24 clearly shows that the company has been efficient in the management of its inventory as well as in the generation of sales from the inventory. However, a low ratio of accounts receivable turnover of 20.58 recorded by the company is an indication that the company has not been quite efficient in the collection of its receivables. To improve its future operations, the company will have to change its strategy in order to improve on its marketing outcomes. That is, there is the need for improvements in the company’s operations and strategies. The company through its Board of Directors and management should improve its R&D outcomes in order to improve on its operations efficiency and profitability. This will include investing more in R&D in order to create new and innovative products in the High-End Segment (Capsim Manual). Highly innovative products will enable the company to remain a cost leader with a focus on the product life cycle. There is also the need for the company to change its strategy to a differentiator with product lifecycle focus. This strategy will enable the company to gain a high competitive advantage with innovative new products that have excellent design and easy accessibility. The new products will also keep pace with the market and will offer improved performance and design, which w ill earn the company increased sales, profitability and overall improvement of its marketing outcomes (Baum,

Public Administration and Civil Service Reform UNDP Cambodia. Case Essay

Public Administration and Civil Service Reform UNDP Cambodia. Case Study - Essay Example Most public managers profess to an attraction to good managerial performance as well as good government performance. However, if their actual conduct is examined, it will become clear that there are two opposing and distinct perspectives on public reform administration reform. Crusading and free-spirited managers are always searching for better methods, promising designs, new ideas, and innovations. They embrace, and believe in novelty. They assess what others are doing elsewhere and identify what they can adapt or copy, and are ready to take risks just to improve performance. They are so eager for change that they often fall victim to the gimmicks and fads that are often witnessed in public management without reason or rhyme. On the other hand, reactionary managers exhibit too much caution and rarely show willingness to attempt anything new. This paper will discuss the factors that hinder or facilitate public administration reform by comparing two programmes of public service reform and looking at the lessons learned from those programmes in terms of the obstacles and opportunities involved in public administration reform. Key words Public administration reform, public management, public service.... to as the National Program for Administrative Reform (NPAR), which would be the foundation upon which the whole public administration reform program would be built. UNDP Cambodia decided to directly support the NPAR, and offered help to the Council of Administrative Reform (CAR) which was aimed at: a) Strengthening the capability of the council’s secretariat in order to improve the effectiveness of national consensus building, strategic planning, donor co-ordination, policy development, and how the NPAR is managed strategically. b) Facilitating the enforcement of priority reform programs and sub-programs, and also the creation of implementation plans. c) Supporting the creation and organization of a Priority Mission Group (PMG) plan so as to improve the efficiency in public service delivery in vital areas of government administration, and also to accelerate reforms. UNDP’s assistance in public administrative reform targets not only decentralized reform enforcement, but also wholesome strategic reform organization. It identified the need to integrate both aspects more fluidly, and also learned some important lessons in the process of supporting Cambodia in its quest to improve public service. Overall, although this project was originally meant to reflect UNDP’s expertise in public administrative reforms, other donors were unwilling to cooperate (Heeks 2002, pg. 25). In addition to this, poor coordination in comparison with other reform areas resulted in weak connections to other activities, disorganized activities, and a loss of focus. Lessons Learned Strategic constituency development is vital to acquire support for and run complex systems modification processes The public administration reform program’s original design failed to recognize the CAR as the

BUSINESS LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

BUSINESS LAW - Essay Example The difference between them is that the former pre-qualify on the basis of â€Å"good citizenship† working on a part-time basis while the latter are lawyers who sit as full time judges. The former sits in threes with the aid of a legally qualified clerk whilst the latter sits alone (Kelly et al 2005 p. 51; Whincup 2006 p. 7). The Crown Court is part of the Supreme Court together with the Court of Appeal and the High Court. It is a single court which sits in 90 centres unlike the magistrates’ court which is a local court. A Crown Court centre is divided into three tiers: the first tier deals with both civil and criminal cases; the second tier hears criminal cases, and; the third tier hears criminal cases presided by circuit judges and recorders (Kelly et al 2005 p. 52). The Crown Court has a two-fold jurisdiction: original criminal indictable cases, and; appeal cases from summary convictions in the magistrates’ courts. If the accused enters a plea of not guilty, the Crown Court judge hears the case with a jury of twelve. The Court also hears either way-offences (Kelly et al 2005 p. 52). The Magistrates’ Courts, aside from having jurisdiction over criminal cases as stated earlier, have also civil jurisdiction. This civil jurisdiction is largely confined to domestic issues like adoption, affiliation, guardianship and the maintenance and separation issues in separation and divorce proceedings between husbands and wives (Whincup 2007 p. 7).. The County Court is part of the national system and hears minor civil disputes, claims for contract breaches and torts up to  £50,000. A lone judge sits, sometimes joined by a jury. It also hears small claims (below  £5000) although the task is relegated to a registrar who is the court’s administrative officer and follows a less stringent procedural method (Whincup 2007 p. 7). The High Court deals with the most important civil cases with its approximately 100 judges appointed so by the Lord Chancellor. It has

Madness in the Tales of Poe and Hawthorne Essay Example for Free

Madness in the Tales of Poe and Hawthorne Essay With madness and confusion dominating short stories such as some of the tales written by Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, the psychological states of their main characters are of the utmost importance. The meanings of the stories depend on whether the characters are truly insane, suffering from a physical ailment or merely intensely angry and hungry for revenge. Poe’s tales â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† both explore themes of madness and premature burials. However, while Roderick Usher seems to be suffering not only from a physical illness but also from insanity which may have stem from a â€Å"history of mental disorder† (Poe, The Fall of the House of Usher), Montresor seems to have been under the grip of intense hatred that have been caused by his victim’s previous insult on his person. It may be argued that Montresor is demented like Usher, but his well-planned crime contradicts the supposition of an unhinged mind. Meanwhile, the psychological troubles of Hawthorne’s characters in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil† are apparently milder, but not subtler. People may regard Goodman Brown as a recluse and a snob and Minister Hooper as someone mourning over his or other people’s sins. Hawthorne explores isolation in both stories, highlighting the possible self-destruction that may result from intensely reclusive lives. Though the stories may vary and the level of mental disorder may differ, both Poe and Hawthorne present people with emotions that are overly sensitive and with mental faculties that are more distraught than most. Poe is fascinated by madness. His stories are sometimes even narrated by persons whose mental and emotional facilities are questionable. This results to a more interesting reading of each of the stories. The reader is left to wonder if he or she is able to extract the accurate account of the story or a deranged version of it. In â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† the narrator observes what goes on in his host, Roderick’s house. He â€Å"rejects evidence of the supernatural†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ He is predisposed to regard Roderick as mad and therefore to reject any explanation Roderick suggests† (Bailey 446). The narrator of the story depends on the accounts of his host, Roderick but he does not trust his friend’s sanity. This creates a tension that is experienced by both the narrator and the reader; this tension is the uncertainty of what is unfolding because it is through the guidance of such an unreliable source like an apparently mad Roderick. Montresor of â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† may not have the gaunt and unhealthy look of Roderick Usher but what he has done to his enemy, Fortunato, is exceedingly cruel. The deed may have seemed perfectly planned and efficient but someone who can avenge an insult received by murder must be somehow unhinged. The criminal’s mind is exaggerated as is evident in his narration: â€Å"THE thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as I best could, but when he ventured upon insult I vowed revenge† (Poe, The Cask of Amontillado). My heart grew sick; it was the dampness of the catacombs that made it so. I hastened to make an end of my labour. I forced the last stone into its position; I plastered it up. Against the new masonry I re-erected the old rampart of bones. For the half of a century no mortal has disturbed them. In pace requiescat. (Poe, The Cask of Amontillado) Though Montresor displays some strong emotion over what he has done to Fortunato, he continues with the crime methodically. Moreover, this contradiction, along with uttering â€Å"Rest in Peace† to his victim seems to suggest that Montresor is indeed insane. In the two short stories, Poe illustrates insanity that has been passed through generations and then insanity that has been triggered simply by an insult. Nathaniel Hawthorne shows some concern about the fate of souls in his two stories â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil† and â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†. While Poe illustrates madness that has resulted from being either inherently insane or predisposed to mental illness, Hawthorne explores zealous religiosity that can result to madness. Minister Hooper’s strong sense of religiousness has driven him to an extreme means of discerning the pious from the hypocrite. â€Å"Why do you tremble at me alone? Tremble also at each other! Have men avoided me, and women shown no pity, and children screamed and fled, only for my black veil? † (Hawthorne, The Ministers Black Veil) The man has decided to put a black veil on his face. Not even his fiancee has been able to persuade him to take off the veil which in turn has given him a continuously mourning persona. Though he is mentally capable to continue his duties as minister, he does them with a somber aura which the veil produces for him. The insistence on constantly wearing the black veil displays obsessive behavior related to his faith despite the fact that he has not actually stated what his real reason for wearing the veil is. In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†, Hawthorne again tackles the effects of the perception of sin. Here, the main character is oppressed by what he thinks is the real knowledge of other people’s sins. What he is not aware of is that the Devil, which he has consorted with in the woods, has made him believe that every single person in his community is involved in atrocious deeds. â€Å"†¦elders of the church have whispered wanton words to the young maids of their households; how many a woman, eager for widows weeds, has given her husband a drink at bedtime and let him sleep his last sleep in her bosom; how beardless youths have made haste to inherit their fathers wealth; and how fair damsels†¦ have dug little graves in the garden, and bidden me, the sole guest to an infants funeral† (Hawthorne). Having believed the Devil’s lies, Goodman Brown is continually suspicious of his neighbors’ intentions. He even believes their good deeds to be merely pretentious displays of piety. Because of this behavior, Goodman Brown isolates himself from the rest of the community and dies a lonely death. Hawthorne explores the themes of isolation and zealous religiousness in his two short stories, expressing the dangers of the two themes. Both Poe and Hawthorne have effectively expressed the psychological terrain that their main characters are in. Through using a narrator that is either the character with the questionable mental state or one that distrusts that character, the stories become more mysterious and subject to individual interpretation while the intensity of emotions coming from the main characters are able to shine through. The two authors explore mental instability in different forms; Poe’s stories are about inherent, maybe even genetic tendencies to lose one’s mind while Hawthorne’s two tales are about isolation that has resulted from obsessive spirituality.

The field of nuclear physics

The field of nuclear physics Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power and nuclear weapons, but the research has provided wider applications, including those in medicine (nuclear medicine, magnetic resonance imaging), materials engineering (ion implantation) and archaeology (radiocarbon dating). The field of particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and, for this reason, has been included under the same term in earlier times. The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first indication that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomsons plum pudding model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass?energy equivalence. While the work on radioactivity by Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the nucleons. Rutherfords team discovers the nucleus In 1907 Ernest Rutherford published Radiation of the a Particle from Radium in passing through Matter[1]. Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society[2] with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing a particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden[3] and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger,[4] In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it. The key experiment behind this announcement happened in 1909 as Ernest Rutherfords team performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. Rutherford had the idea to instruct his team to look for something that shocked him to actually observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards, in some cases. He likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, beginning with Rutherfords analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the ne utron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles), and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons. The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each others spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of 1/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of 1. James Chadwick discovers the neutron In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Ir?ne and Fr?d?ric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the neutron (following a suggestion about the need for such a particle, by Rutherford). In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons to explain the mass not due to protons, and that there were no electrons in the nucleus only protons and neutrons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model, each contribute a spin of 1/2 in the same direction, for a final total spin of 1. With the discovery of the neutron, scientists at last could calculate what fraction of binding energy each nucleus had, from comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses calculated in this way, and when nuclear reactions were measured, were found to agree with Einsteins calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to high accuracy (within 1% as of in 1934). Yukawas meson postulated to bind nuclei In 1935 Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the Yukawa interaction a virtual particle, later called a meson, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive strong force had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the pi meson showed it to have the properties of Yukawas particle. With Yukawas papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay). The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by Enrico Fermi via Fermis interaction in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the crown jewel of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces. Modern nuclear physics Main articles: Liquid-drop model and Shell model A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission. Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled. Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the interacting boson model, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as bosons, analogously to Cooper pairs of electrons. Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of Rugby balls) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons. Modern topics in nuclear physics Spontaneous changes from one nuclide to another: nuclear decay Main article: Radioactivity There are 80 elements which have at least one stable isotope (defined as isotopes never observed to decay), and in total there are about 256 such stable isotopes. However, there are thousands more well-characterized isotopes which are unstable. These radioisotopes may be unstable and decay in all timescales ranging from fractions of a second to weeks, years, or many billions of years. For example, if a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, in a process called beta decay a nitrogen-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an oxygen-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron and antineutrino, by the weak nuclear force. The element is transmuted to another element in the process, because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen). In alpha decay the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus helium-4. In many cases this process continues through several steps of this kind, including other types of decays, until a stable element is formed. In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower state by emitting a gamma ray. It is then stable. The element is not changed in the process. Other more exotic decays are possible (see the main article). For example, in internal conversion decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may be used to eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons, but is not beta decay, and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another. Nuclear fusion Main article: Nuclear fusion When two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together. It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong or nuclear forces to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities. Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus. A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62. Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various resea rch establishments (see JET and ITER). For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission. The process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely. For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. (Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions.) The fission or nuclear chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay. For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earths core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions. Production of heavy elements According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the big bang it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist. The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers). Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star. Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron cap ture process (the so-called s process) or by the rapid, or r process. The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The r process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers). The r process duration is typically in the range of a few seconds.

What Really Happened To Roanoke History Essay

What Really Happened To Roanoke History Essay Years before the first major American settlement of Jamestown was established, Sir Walter Raleigh, a European, was sent by Queen Elizabeth I to land on Roanoke Island, in what is now North Carolina. Upon arriving, Raleigh attempted to befriend the natives in order to be able to set up a colony there. Eventually there was another expedition made with a different group of people who would permanently live on this new land we now call America. Many people know this story, and that it ended in the utter disappearance of a large group of settlers. The only clue that the vanished group left was the word CROATOAN carved on a nearby tree (Lois 16). A lot of people think that the settlers all died since no direct ancestry has been traced back to them yet, but most people over look the most plausible possibility; most settlers ended up assimilating to nearby Indian lifestyles and families, leaving their would-be colony behind, and starting new with the native people. The voyage to Roanoke was the last of two main voyages to settle in America. On this voyage, John White, a man who was already familiar with the land, would be the leader. White put together a group of 110 civilians, different from the group of soldiers Raleigh had brought before (Durant 103). The benefit of having civilians settle for this voyage is that they had motivation for survival. The previous expedition had soldiers who were paid to venture into the new land and settle. This new crowd was completely volunteer; their only payment was acreage promised by the Queen (104). Since the families would have land in America, they would have to learn to survive and be self sufficient in the new world. On April 26, 1587, John White led his expedition to Roanoke to start their new life (Fritz, Talbott). After arrival at Roanoke, the settlers there developed an established area for them to live in. It could support them, to an extent. A settler named Edward Stafford led a group of 20 people down to visit the Indians who lived on Croatoan Island (Durant 118). Accompanying them was an Indian that was originally brought back to Europe by previous expeditions (Durant 118). The Croatoans befriended White, even though one of their members had been killed by previous skirmishes. John White and his settlers didnt make friends with all the tribes, though. There had been one tribe, the Roanoacs, whom John White planned to murder in revenge of them killing one of Europes former citizens, George Howe (119). Eventually after being on the island for quite some time, the colonists encouraged White to return to England for provisions. Originally, he argued the idea because he didnt want to abandon his daughter and her newborn child. Eventually he was persuaded and he waited for Fernandez, the pilot of the initial voyage to pick him up aboard the Lion (121). Due to storms, Fernandez arrival was delayed, but on August 27, 1587 John White left the Island of Roanoke along with its settlers, for Europe (123). Little known to White, this would be the last time he would ever see them again. White returned in 1590 to the island of Roanoke to find almost nothing left of the colony. It is said that White and his men could see fire burning through the trees, and, To reassure the colonists that they were a friendly party, they first sounded a trumpet and then spend the night singing English folk tunes and calling out familiar greetings, but no answer came. (Kupperman 130). Karen Kuppermans book titled Roanoke, says that White told the colonists to carve clues to let them know where they had gone, and the word CRO was found on a tree (131). White wasnt surprised because the colonists and him had discussed moving north to a different area by the time he got back. After finding the famed CROATOAN carving, white planned to sail to Croatoan in the spring after spending winter in the West Indies, but storms prevented his return, and White never made it back to find the colonists (133). Many theories are present to what could have happened to these colonists. The one that most resonates with me is that the colonists assimilated with the natives; and there is much evidence to prove this. First off, the colonists had already befriended the Croatoan, the tribe in which the clue they left was based on. It is not unusual to assume that the starving colony would seek help from the local tribe who had lived there since the existence of their people. Upon settling Jamestown, John Smith had published a book talking about the settlement and the area of what is now Virginia, and in it he reports, Indians had told him of people like the settlers, whom Smith took to be the lost colonists (Kupperman 137). Kuppermans book reiterates the legends of colonists intermarrying with the Indians; Local legends in North Carolina maintain that the lost colonists survived and intermarried with the Indians and that their descendants live in the region today (141). When we look at it from a mo re current standpoint, it is easy to see in todays society that mixed race is everywhere. If you look at a Native American descendant of today, you can tell that he is Native American. But when someone is a child of mixed raced parents, some traits can be more dominant than others. Is it not possible that when the white settlers merged with the Indians that their physical traits were more prominent that the whites? This would defend the statement that most of the surviving colonists and their descendants were hard to discover, due to the fact that they merely blended in with the rest of the Indians. By the time America became more settled, the original lost colonists of Roanoke would have been dead. More evidence of survival of the Roanoke settlers is backed up by James Horns article titled Roanokes Lost Colony Found? It speaks of a Powhatan named Machumps who traveled to England and told the English of an Indian tribe forming two story houses made of stone, and they did this after being taught by English who survived the slaughter of Roanoke. On a side note, the slaughter on Roanoke was an attack on the village by local Indians, which led people to believe that the colonists had all perished. According to this article, it could very well be possible that some escaped and survived. John White has a recorded journal entry that he wrote, detailing the request that the colonists made, suggesting that he return to England to update Raleigh on their status and get supplies. In the colonists request they state, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦for the present and speedie supllie of certain our knowen, and apparent lackes, and needs, most requisite and necessarie for the good of usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦uncessa ntly requested John Whiteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in all our behalfes to passà © into Englande. (Quinn, The Roanoke Voyages). This journal entry even more stresses the fact that the colonists supplies were dwindling. Since John White didnt return, the only option for supplies they had was living with the Croatoan. In Lois Miner Hueys book American Archaeology Uncovers the Earliest English Colony, she speaks of a glass trade beadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and three brass disks. (20). These items, were no doubt offered as necklaces in exchange for food or other goods (Huey 20). The English could have probably survived for quite some time on bartering trades with the Natives alone. While clues like this and many others are found, no one will know for sure if they used them to trade for food. In the end, the Lost Colony of Roanoke will always be a mystery. I do not believe that in my lifetime they will uncover the certain truth. Judging by the facts that I have read, and the references that I have researched, the only plausible idea is that the colonists assimilated with the Croatoan. The colonists left the carving in the tree to signal to John White that, upon his return, he should look for them there. Also, the Indian immigrant Machumps speaking of English existence within the tribes reinforces the idea. Even from the viewpoint of today, when we look around at how intensely diverse our culture is, it is not hard to believe that back then at the beginning of our America, the English could have started mixing with foreign races. Maybe they mixed because that is the only way they would have survived and kept their bloodline going. Roanoke is the Lost Colony, but I believe the distant relatives of the colonists are among us, today.

Who I am hates who Ive been :: essays research papers

Just Another Face in the Crowd On September 26, 2004, I went to visit my uncle in Powder Springs, Georgia. I had gotten into some trouble at home and needed a place to get away for a few weeks. As time passed, those few weeks turned into five months and my get away destination turned into the place I now call home. I never thought when I went for a visit that I would live there permanently. It never crossed my mind that moving was probably the smartest decision that I have ever made. Before I moved to Georgia, I was perfectly content to wait tables for the rest of my life. As long as I had enough money to keep up with my cell phone bill, pay for my tanning membership each month, and buy a new pair of jeans every now and then I was happy. My childhood dreams of becoming a dancer or a doctor had somehow been pushed to the back of my mind. I was an expert at giving my parents one hundred and one logical reasons why I did not need to go to college, or get a better paying job. I lacked ambition and the desire to be anything more than the people I was around everyday. All of that changed when I moved to Georgia. Instead of being surrounded by people content with just getting by, I was surrounded by hard- working, ambitious people. Instead of living for the moment, they work today and plan for tomorrow. Being around these people as caused me to want more from life than to just survive. I want to thrive. I had lived in Florida ever since I was two years old. By the time I was seventeen I knew enough people to feel secure with my circle of friends. I never felt the need to reach out and make new friends. I felt safe with the group I had been with for so long, and besides, making new friends took to much effort. Moving to a completely different state completely altered my way of thinking. I was faced with a choice. I could either keep to myself and not make any friends or I could step out and be a friend to people I had never met before. I had never liked being alone so I chose to step out and the results were rewarding.

Relationship Education at the Secondary Level Essay -- Teaching Teache

Relationship Education at the Secondary Level The process of education begins from the day we are born until the day we pass on from this earth. When in this evolution and sophistication of education, however, are we taught to think for ourselves and develop our own ideas about the world? Although we are nurtured to make life decisions on a daily basis, the relationship between the college, university, and society is where core competencies are molded to help drive us toward the desired professional roads to be taken. At the very onset of entering college, teachers and professors teach us how to think in logical ways for ourselves, rather than automatically follow the required scripted lessons to be learned. We are taught to find fallacies in arguments such as David Thomas The Mind of Man. He regards males as Specifically, boys are to be blamed for their own disadvantages.(121) The rest of this article keeps this same consistency through to the end. He describes females as much higher and knowledgeable persons and all males are just a subspecies that cannot do anything right. Another author, bell hooks, sees the world in a completely different light in her article Class and Education. As a professor, she gave everyone equal treatment. It did not matter if you were male or female, white or black; you were treated as an equal. The colleges, universities and independent institutes for specialized professional pursuits, are keys to opening doors for our future positions in society. These institutions Grabow 2 of secondary education are devoted to transferring current technology and information to equip the latest generation in society with the mandatory skill sets necessary to take a position in todays professional world. Col... ...st by driving their students toward logical assessments for their professional pursuits by integrating learned information from the world and the classroom. Works Cited Brooks, Gwendolyn. We Real Cool. Presence of Others. Andrea Lunsford, John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins 1991, 133. hooks, bell. Keeping Close to Home: Class and Education. Presence of Others. Andrea Lunsford, John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins 1989, 93-103. Rose, Mike. Lives on the Boundary. Presence of Others Andrea Lunsford, John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins 1989, 105-118. Spayed, John. Learning in the Key of Life. Presence of Others. Andrea Lunsford, John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins 1998, 58-63. Thomas, David. The Mind of Man. Presence of Others. Andrea Lunsford, John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins 1993, 120-124.

Impact of Recess on Classroom Behavior Essay -- essays papers

Impact of Recess on Classroom Behavior When comparing the amount of time American children spend at ‘recess’ during the school day, you will see, that it is considerably less than the amount of time given by other countries. Japanese schools typically have a 10-20 min recess period between 45-min lessons or 5-min breaks between lessons, with a long play period after lunch. In Taiwan, schools typically have many recess periods during the day; children are also given 5-6 min of transition after recess in which to settle down. British schools have three 15-min recess periods throughout the day and 80-90 minutes at lunch. Many researcher believe that this recess period is key to classroom instruction. Research was done to determine the effect of a recess break on classroom behavior; specifically working, fidgeting, and listlessness. A southern urban school district with a ‘no recess policy’, granted permission for two grade 4 classes to have recess once a week so that behavior on recess days could be compared to that of behavior on non-recess days. Because recess was not in the normal daily schedule, the students would not anticipate it, and this anticipation could not effect the results. The days for recess were chosen randomly so that a pattern would not develop and be anticipated. The study looked at 43 children, 18 boys and 25 girls, from a variety of backgrounds; socially, ethnically, and economically. The school was located in middle class-upper middle class neighborhood and serves neighborhood children as well as children bussed in from transient housing. This quantitative study explained very clearly the types of children that were to be studied, the specific controls that would be used, and the results that were being anticipated. Researchers conducting this test were looking for the effectiveness that recess has on the student, if any. The children were placed into two research groups; A and B. Classroom A’s normal morning schedule is as follows. 8:00-9:30 Instruction in their own classroom 9:30-11:15 Mathematics and science in another classroom (where they were observed) 11:15-12:00 Instruction in their own classroom On the days when the children had recess, they took a break from mathematics and science to go outside from approximately 10:30-10:50. Classroom B’s normal morning schedule is as foll... ...gnificant research for educators to know and that if used properly it could, and would, increase the learning in a classroom. Most public schools have a period set aside each day for recess that coincides with the lunch schedule. This proves that schools are taking advantage of the recess method. I think that the ‘anticipation factor’ is key to giving recess the greatest impact possible. Schools would have to devise a schedule that would shift the recess periods around so students would be unaware of the days scheduled recess time. This would be dependent on teacher and administrator cooperation. I believe that the research done has ‘real world’ significance to teachers and students alike. The changes that would have to take place are minimal and the effects that would be achieved are obvious from the start. Teachers everywhere would benefit from using this information in the day to day running of their classrooms by saving countless minutes trying to keep the class on task. We have learned that the most important parts to a lesson are the ‘first’ and ‘last’ facts. When you add recess into the daily schedule you have another ‘start’ and ‘finish’ for kids to remember.

Did the Court feel that equalizing the funding between schools in Texas would make school opportunity for students equal?

In 1973, the San Antonio Independent School District filed an appeal to the United States Supreme Court to decide whether or not the state of Texas financed public education in such a way to discriminate against students living in poor school districts.The Supreme Court (1973) held that â€Å"the Texas system does not operate to the peculiar disadvantage of any suspect class.† Although such is the case, the Court also held that education â€Å"is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms† (United States Supreme Court [USSC], 1973). There are, however, factors to consider before such an equal opportunity for students to exist.While believing that education must be made available to all on equal terms, the United States Supreme Court (1973) also believed that â€Å"the history of education since the industrial revolution shows a continual struggle between two forces: the desire by members of society to have educational opportunity for all children, and t he desire of each family to provide the best education it can afford for its own children.† The Texas financial system for public schools is a â€Å"product of the state and local participation† (USSC, 1973).Half of the revenues to provide basic education were derived from state-funded programs and each district aids in financing through taxes on properties within the district's jurisdiction. The appellees claim that Texas' reliance on local property taxation discriminates poor families who reside in districts having low generation of property tax.The United States Supreme Court (1973), however, held that the state of   Texas works its system of school finances such that â€Å"While assuring a basic education for every child in the State, it permits and encourages a large measure of participation in and control of each district's schools at the local level.†It was based on the efforts â€Å"devoted to establishing a means of guaranteeing a minimum statewide ed ucational program without sacrificing the vital element of local participation† and local control means†¦ the freedom to devote more money to the education of one's children† (USSC, 1973).There is no doubt that the United States Supreme Court feel that equalizing the the funds between schools in Texas would make opportunity for students equal as well.However, it held that the financial system has already provided the basic educational requirement and does not believe that the state of Texas is not making any efforts to provide such equal opportunity in education for its students. The 1973 decision states that:â€Å"In sum, to the extent that the Texas system of school financing results in unequal expenditures between children who happen to reside in different districts, we cannot say that such disparities are the product of a system that is so irrational as to be invidiously discriminatory.Texas has acknowledged its shortcomings and has persistently endeavored â₠¬â€œ not without some success – to ameliorate the differences in levels of expenditures without sacrificing the benefits of local participation. TheTexas plan is not the result of hurried, ill-conceived legislation.It certainly is not the product of purposeful discrimination against any group or class. On the contrary, it is rooted in decades of experience in Texas and elsewhere, and in major part is the product of responsible studies by qualified people† (USSC, 1973).The United States Supreme Court (1973) believed that â€Å"the Texas plan for financing public education reflects what many educators for a half century have thought was an enlightened approach to a problem for which there is no perfect solution† in which the justices are unwilling to assume â€Å"a level of wisdom superior to that of legislators, scholars, and educational authorities in 50 States, especially where the alternatives proposed are only recently conceived and nowhere yet tested.† ReferenceUnited States Supreme Court (1973). San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez. 411 US 1

Nursing

Community nurses are the nurses who work in a particular community for its welfare. With their ability to understand, they can deal with the health of residents living in any community. They work in the field of public health in order to perform tasks including population and community evaluation, development and implementation of community health programs and working in teams in order to work with discipline. Nurses in acute care settings work along with other health care specialists (Green, 27). The nurse is involved in the healing, security and recovery of intensely sick patients, looking after the health of healthy patience and operations of patients who are suffer from life threatening ailment. They perform non-clinical job that are vital for health care. Death and birth care is also provided by the nurses. Nurses practice in variety of acute settings that are available to them. They work in hospitals, schools, pharmaceutical companies, clinics, camps, militaries (Burbach, 98). Even though, nurses from different area of expertise seem to be more or less in abilities, we cannot conclude that nurses working in acute care settings are not capable. For example, Nurses working in critical care settings are experts on pregnancy and birth related aspects than community nurses. The question comes whether to justify that it is a false impression or a fact that a skill in one setting can be use as a skill in another (Humphrey, 19). When developing intermediary plans with requirements of constant management, the need of feedback and extra training is mandatory. This can help the nurses to put into practice and increase experience in non acute care settings before complete service changes are ready. This would enable the nurses to use their abilities and be confident to work in non acute settings. Equally essential, it is important for non acute setting nurses to continue with their education (Conrad, 28). The skills of dressing and taking care of wounds, having complete knowledge about the community’s resources, information on diabetes, patient family support and good communication skills with third party payers are very important when working in the community. These are the skills that help the nurse when working in the community. These nurses work under their leaders, learn in the learning atmosphere and accommodate themselves to adjustments to changes (Feldman, 17). They have the ability to work efficiently which has been dictated to them. They have the ability to work in a peaceful atmosphere and ignoring their colleague’s weaknesses. Nurses working in acute settings require the information, capabilities and experience to take care of their patients and the families. At the same time, the nurse creates loving, kind and restoring health environment. At the same time, they fulfill various responsibilities. They work directly with patients, they provide education to fresh nurses, they work as researchers, and they are managers (Shea, 67). A community nurse works independently as compared with nurses who work in acute settings. The main aim of a community nurse is to focus on the population and persons who do not necessarily seek out the services. Nurses working in acute care settings differ from community nurses in many ways. Nurses working in acute care settings do not have the access to direct clinical practice. They do not have the advance skills to provide education and teaching skills to patients and family (Loreti, 32). They work under superiors. They are not consultants and they do not take part in research. They carry out duties that are instructed to them. They do not require any leadership quality. They do not write policies or build partnerships.   They are restricted in certain working conditions (Stephany, 13). Nurses working in the acute care settings assess the critical and acute patient’s health status. Community nurses have to demonstrate the ability to make decisions for a variety of situations. They also need to demonstrate the need for promoting the rights of clients. They have to ensure the safety of their patients. Communications skills are very important for nurses working in the community and acute care settings. However community nurses require effective communication skills as compared with nurses working in acute care settings because the former might interact with poor and marginalized sections of society. A community nurse has to reflect primary health care principles to ensure that clients become independent and responsible (Brent, 10). An acute setting nurse on the other hand has to keep and document the health history of critical and chronically ill patients. A community nurse must have leadership and management skills to ensure that multiple approaches are used to assist the client in health issues (Wood, 17). Community nurses have to apply a public health framework to build community health nursing. They must plan and integrate health promotion into the aspects of community health nursing. They must also apply knowledge of health promotion to achieve public health policies (Hunt, 36). They must coordinate the development and implementation of health promotion plans. An acute settings nurse on the other hand is more concerned with assessing the needs of additional screening after initial assessment findings. They must have adequate skills to assess the impact of acute or chronic injuries on the individual (Bailey, 714). A nurse working in acute settings needs to be very quick and capable of working with complex and dependant patients. In the community settings, assessment and decision making abilities play an important role in the delivery of patient care. Nurses in the acute settings must quickly identify outcomes based on actual or potential diagnosis (Sobolewski, 12). Intervention plans are individualized according to the characteristics of the patients. The plan is developed in collaboration with other health professionals and family members.   They ensure that there is continuity of care and properly documented. A community nurse on the other hand must demonstrate the ability to have effective problem solving strategies. They must also make the use of systematic decision making techniques. These decisions need to be based on experience and clinical judgment. Community nurses have a higher degree of autonomy as compared with nurses working in acute settings. They have to participate in decision making to ensure accountability. They must also make appropriate solutions in response to a range of options (Harris, 14). Nurses in the community need to demonstrate the ability to make autonomous decisions and independence. They have to resolve complex situations using multiple approaches. A nurse working in the acute setting on the other hand does not have a high degree of autonomy. They also do not need to demonstrate a level of independence. Nurses working in the community differ from those who work in acute settings. They have work in developing community health programs and teams. Nurses in acute settings on other hand work for healing and recovery of intensely sick patients. Works Cited: Burbach CA. Community health and home health nursing: keeping the concepts clear. Nurse and Health Care. 1988; 9(2):96-100. Green PH. Meeting the learning needs of home health nurses. J Home Health Care Practice. 1994; 6(4):25-32. Conrad MB. Issues in home health nursing education. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991; 9(4):21-28. Humphrey CJ. Home care nursing orientation model: justification and structure. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1992; 19(3):18-22. Shea AM. Transitioning professional nurses into home care: a 6-month mentorship program. J Home Health Care Practice. 1994; 6(4):67-72. Feldman R. Meeting the educational needs of home health care nurses. J Home Health Care Practice. 1993; 5(4):12-19. Stephany TM. Health hazard concerns of home care nurses: a staff nurse perspective. J Nurs Adm. 1993; 23(12):12-13. Loreti ST. Easing the transition from hospital nursing to home care: a research study. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991; 9(4):32-35. Wood MJ. The educational needs of home health nurses. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1986; 4(3):11-17. Bailey C. Education for home care providers.JOGNN 1994; 23(8):714-719. Hunt P. When orientation is not enough.Home Healthcare Nurse. 1992; 10(6):36-40. Brent NJ. Orientation to home healthcare nursing is an essential ingredient of risk management and employee satisfaction.Home Healthcare Nurse. 1992; 10(2):9-10. Harris MD, Yuan J. Educating and orienting nurses for home healthcare. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991; 9(4):9-14 Sobolewski S. `See you in home care.' Am J Nurs(Part 2: Career Guide). 1996; January:10,12,14.                                                             Nursing Nursing is like breathing for me. It is more than a purpose. Being a nurse will complement not only most people but my well-being as well. To become a nurse you need to be compassionate and able to pass college algebra and several science courses such as microbiology, chemistry, anatomy and physiology. I also need to take psychology, social sciences, and be proficient at written and oral communication. I need to be able to read at a tenth grade level. For many, 9/11 was a turning point in their professional lives. People began to find they were not satisfied in jobs that didn't make a difference in someone's life. Others had always wanted to become a nurse but other factors influenced their decisions and now they want to pursue a career in nursing. I might find it easier than you thought to have a second career as a nurse. Nursing is extremely hard work, both physically and emotionally. Not everyone is cut out for it. It's not just the blood and gore that might make you think twice. I have to understand what nursing involves before you choose this route. I don't have to just work in a hospital to be a nurse. I am about to find out more opportunities for nurses as well as the educational requirements to achieve these roles. Healthcare is one of the fastest growing professions throughout the world. The population ages, and healthcare costs rise, the demand for nurses will continue to increase as well. The health care delivery system is shifting, and nurses, particularly those with advanced education, will be in demand for quite some time.   With the rising costs of healthcare, physicians are spending less time with patients, and nurses are shifting into an ever expanding role of health educator, as well as providing more direct care to the patients. Effects of Nursing Shortage The present population of nurses is aging and approaching retirement. This will compound the current shortage of nurses worldwide. I am bent to become one of one the thousands of nurses that aspire to undertake this profession. The shortage nurses are causing a dramatic increase in salaries for nurses but this is not a hindrance to become a nurse. For one to become a nurse, he or she should be more than dedicated with his profession. Patients are to be treated like they are family as well, so as to feel at home during their confinement in the hospital. Hospitals and other facilities are competing for nurses with sign-on bonuses, and packages including cars, childcare and/or eldercare assistance, and housing assistance. Attractive salaries, bonuses, and job security are not the only benefits for nurses. Caring for others and making a difference in the lives of others everyday is a rewarding aspect to a career in nursing. It's something that can be said to be missing in many careers. The shortage of nurses has forced employers to not only adjust salaries, but to look outside the box at alternative and flexible working conditions. Many more opportunities are available for per diem, part time as well as full time employees. Flexible work schedules and job sharing opportunities are emerging in the field to help nurses meet the demands of their families while managing a rewarding career. One way you can see for yourself first hand is to become a patient, but that is not the recommended route. Many young people choose nursing because of past experiences as a patient or through the experiences of a loved one or a close friend. Other ways include volunteering in a local hospital. Many still use candy stripers, or have auxiliaries which train volunteers to read to patients, to assist with wheelchair transportation at discharge, running library carts, etc. Another way is to seek out a shadow day experience. Talk to your guidance counselor and see if it is possible to set one up. Sometimes local hospitals and clinics offer these periodically. Call your local facility and inquire. Perhaps you ca help them to do this if they don't already. Nursing schools may offer shadow day experiences. Some are beginning to offer Nursing Camps for a week during the summer. You live on campus and attend events and tours of their hospital facilities. You shadow nurses, and earn your CPR. You may also learn to take vital signs and visit laboratory facilities. You may get to enter a hyperbaric chamber and observe in the Emergency rooms and Operating Rooms. Yet this is what I aspire to be. Nursing is not just a profession for me it is passion that will take me places and would complement me as a person. Nursing Nursing is involved in identifying its own unique knowledge base—that is, the body of knowledge essential to nursing practice, or a so-called nursing science. To identify this knowledge base, nurses must develop and recognize concepts and theories that are specific to nursing. Theory has been defined as a supposition or system of ideas that is proposed to explain a given phenomenon. For now, think of theory as a major, very well articulated idea about something important. The four most influential theories from the 20th century were Marx’s theory of alienation, Freud’s theory of the unconscious, Darwin’s theory of evolution, and Einstein’s theory of relativity. Most undergraduate students are introduced to the major theories in their disciplines. Psychology majors study Freud and Jung’s theories of the unconscious, Sullivan and Piaget’s theories of development, and Skinner’s theory of behaviorism. Psychology majors are also introduced to critiques of those theories. Sociology majors study Marx’s theory of alienation and Weber’s theories of modern work, as well as the critiques of their theories. Both sociology and psychology majors spend the majority of their time studying theories and approaches to research. This paper discusses how nursing theory is different from medicine. II. Background A. Purposes of Nursing Theory Direct links exist among theory, education, research, and clinical practice. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Education Because nursing theory was used primarily to establish the profession’s place in the university, it is not surprising that nursing theory became more firmly established in academia than in clinical practice. In the 1970s and 1980s, many nursing programs identified the major concepts in one or two nursing models, organized these concepts into a conceptual framework, and attempted to organize the entire curriculum around that framework. The unique language in these models was typically introduced into program objectives, course objectives, course descriptions, and clinical performance criteria. The purpose was to elucidate the central meanings of the profession and to gain status vis-à  -vis other professions. Occasionally, the language of nursing syllabi became so torturous that neither the faculty nor the students had a clear understanding of what was meant. Many nursing programs have abandoned theory-driven conceptual frameworks. III. Discussion A. In Research Nurse scholars have repeatedly insisted that nursing research identifies the philosophical assumptions or theoretical frameworks from which it proceeds. That is because all thinking, writing, and speaking is based on previous assumptions about people and the world. New theoretical perspectives provide an essential service by identifying gaps in the way we approach specific fields of study such as symptom management or quality of life. Different theoretical perspectives can also help generate new ideas, research questions, and interpretations. Grand theories only occasionally direct nursing research. Nursing research is more often informed by midlevel theories that focus on the exploration of concepts such as pain, self-esteem, learning, and hardiness. Qualitative research in nursing and the social sciences can also be grounded in theories from philosophy or the social sciences. The term critical theory is used in academia to describe theories that help elucidate how social structures affect a wide variety of human experiences from art to social practices. In nursing, critical theory helps explain how these structures such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and economic class affect patient experiences and health outcomes. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Clinical Practice Where nursing theory has been employed in a clinical setting, its primary contribution has been the facilitation of reflection, questioning, and thinking about what nurses do. Because nurses and nursing practice are often subordinated to powerful institutional forces and traditions, the introduction of any framework that encourages nurses to reflect on, think about, and question what they do provides an invaluable service. An increasing body of theoretical scholarship in nursing has been outside the framework of the formal theories presented in the next pages. Benner (2000) argues that formalistic theories are too often superimposed on the life-worlds of patients, overshadowing core values of the profession and our patient’s humanity. Philosophy is used to explore both clinical and theoretical issues in the journal Nursing Philosophy. Family theorists and critical theorists have encouraged the profession to move the focus from individuals to families and social structures. Debates about the role of theory in nursing practice provide evidence that is nursing is maturing, both as an academic discipline and as a clinical profession. B. Nursing Theories The nursing theories discussed in this paper vary considerably (a) in their level of abstraction; (b) in their conceptualization of the client, health/illness, environment, and nursing; and (c) in their ability to describe, explain, or predict. Some theories are broad in scope; others are limited. The works presented in this paper may be categorized as philosophies, conceptual frameworks or grand theories, or midlevel theories (Tomey, 2001). A philosophy is often an early effort to define nursing phenomena and serves as the basis for later theoretical formulations. Examples if philosophies are those of Nightingale, Henderson, and Watson. Conceptual models/grand theories include those of Orem, Rogers, Roy, and King, whereas midlevel theorists are Peplau, Leininger, Parse, and Neuman. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nightingale’s Environmental Theory Florence Nightingale, often considered the first nurse theorist, defined nursing more than 100 years ago as â€Å"the act of utilizing the environment of the patient to assist him in his recovery (Nightingale, 1999). She linked health with five environmental factors: (1) pure or fresh air, (2) pure water, (3) efficient drainage, (4) cleanliness and (5) light, especially direct sunlight. Deficiencies These environmental factors attain significance when one considers that sanitation conditions in the hospitals of the mid-1800s were extremely poor and that women working in the hospitals were often unreliable, uneducated, and incompetent to care for the ill. In addition to those factors, Nightingale also stressed the importance of keeping the client warm, maintaining a noise-free environment, and attending of the client’s diet in terms of assessing intake, timeliness of the food, and its effect on the person (Nightingale, 1999). Nightingale set the stage for further work in the development of nursing theories. Her general concepts about ventilation, cleanliness, quiet, warmth, and diet remain integral parts of nursing and health care today. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Roger’s Science of Unitary Human Beings Martha Rogers first presented her theory of unitary human beings in 1970. It contains complex conceptualizations related to multiple scientific disciplines (e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Burr and Northrop’s electrodynamic theory of life; von Bertalanffy’s general systems theory; and many other disciplines, such as anthropology, psychology, sociology, astronomy, religion, philosophy, history, biology, and literature. Rogers views the person as an irreducible whole, the whole being greater than the sum of its parts. Whole is differentiated from holistic, the latter often being used to mean only the sum of all parts. She states that humans are dynamic energy fields in continuous exchange with environmental fields, both of which are infinite. The â€Å"human field image† perspective surpasses that of the physical body. Both human and environmental fields are characterized by pattern, a universe of open systems, and four dimensionalities (Rogers, 2000). Nurses applying Roger’s theory in practice (a) focus on the person’s wholeness, (b) seek to promote symphonic interaction between the two energy fields (human and environment) to strengthen the coherence and integrity of the person, (c) coordinate the human field with the rhythmicities of the environmental field, and (d) direct and redirect patterns of interaction between the two energy fields to promote maximum health potential. Nurses’ use of non-contact therapeutic touch is based on the concept of human energy fields. The qualities of the field vary from person to person and are affected by pain and illness. Although the field is infinite, realistically it is most clearly â€Å"felt† within several feet of the body. Nurses trained in non-contact therapeutic touch claim they can assess and feel the energy field and manipulate it to enhance the healing process of people who are ill or injured (Rogers, 2000). c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Orem’s General Theory of Nursing Dorothea Orem’s theory, first published in 1971, includes the related concepts: self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. Self-care theory is based in four concepts: self-care, self-care agency, self-care requisites, and therapeutic self-care demand. Self-care refers to those activities an individual performs independently throughout life to promote and maintain personal well-being. Self-care agency is the individual’s ability to perform self-care activities. It consists of two agents: A self-care agent (an individual who performs self-care independently) and a dependent care agent (a person other than the individual who provides the care) (Orem, 2001). Most adults care for themselves, whereas infants and people weakened by illness or disability require assistance with self-care activities. Self-care requisites, also called self-care needs, are measures or actions taken to provide self-care. Self-care deficit results when self-care agency is not adequate to meet the known self-care demand. Orem’s self-care deficit theory explains not only when nursing is needed but also how people can be assisted through five methods of helping; acting or doing for, guiding, teaching, supporting, and providing an environment that promotes the individual’s abilities to meet current and future demands. d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   King’s Goal Attainment Theory Imogene King’s theory of goal attainment was derived from her conceptual framework. King’s framework shows the relationship of operational systems (individuals), interpersonal systems (groups such as nurse-patient), and social systems (such as educational system, health care system). She selected 15 concepts from the nursing literature (self, role, perception, communication, interaction, transaction, growth and development, stress, time, personal space, organization, status power, authority, and decision making) as essential knowledge for use by nurses. Ten of the concepts in the framework were selected (self, role, perception, communication, interaction, transaction, growth and development, stress, time, and personal space) as essential knowledge for use by nurses in concrete nursing situations. Within this theory, a transaction process model was designed (King, 2001). This process describes the nature of and standard for nurse—patient interactions that leads to goal attainment— that nurses purposefully interact and mutually set, explore, and agree to means to achieve goals. Goal attainment represents outcomes. When this information is recorded in the patient record, nurses have data that represent evidence-based nursing practice. King’s theory offers insight into nurses’ interactions with individuals and groups within the environment. It highlights the importance of a client’s participation in decisions that influence care and focuses on both the process of nurse-client interaction and the outcomes of care (King, 2001). IV. Conclusion In the natural sciences, the main function of theory is to guide research. In the practice disciples, the main function of theory (and research) is to provide new possibilities for understanding the discipline’s focus (music, art, management, and nursing). To Nightingale, the knowledge required to provide good nursing was neither unique nor specialized. Rather, Nightingale viewed nursing as central human activity grounded in observation, reason, and commonsense health practices. Theories articulate significant relationship between concepts in order to point something larger, such as gravity, the unconscious, or the experiences of pain. Reference: Benner, P. (2000). The roles of embodiment, emotion and lifeworld for rationality and agency in nursing practice. Nursing Philosophy, 1(1), 5-19. Nightingale, F. (1999). Notes on nursing: What it is, and what it is not. New York: Dover. (Original work published in 1860). Orem, D. (2001).   Nursing: Concepts of practice (8th Ed.). St. Louis, M.O. Mosby. Rogers, M.E. (2000).   An introduction to the theoretical basis if nursing. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. Tomey, A.M. (2001). Nursing theorist and their work (7th Ed.). St. Louis MO: Mosby. King, I. M. (2001). A theory fir nursing: Systems, concepts, process. Albany, NY: Delmar.